FOR MORE OF THIS COURSE AND ANY OTHER COURSES, TEST BANKS, FINAL EXAMS, AND SOLUTION MANUALS
CONTACT US
*4. While 1[there is much wickedness in
the world,] 2[there is also much good.] For 3[if there is
evil, then there must be good,] since 4[good and evil are relative,
like big and small.] And no one will deny that 5[evil exists.]
4
↓
3 + 5
↓
2
5. Since
1[major historical events cannot be repeated,] 2[historians
aren’t scientists.] After all, 3[the scientific method necessarily
involves events (called “experiments”) that can be repeated.]
3 + 1
↓
2
6. 1[The
scientific method doesn’t necessarily involve experimentation.] For 2[if
anything is a science, astronomy is.] But 3[the great cosmic events
observed by astronomers cannot be repeated.] And, of course, 4[an
experiment is by definition a repeatable event.]
4 + 2 + 3
↓
1
7. Although
1[people often say that beauty is in the eye of the beholder,] there
are various reasons for thinking that 2[beauty is objective.] First,
3[there is wide agreement about natural beauty.] After all, 4[virtually
everyone finds the Grand Canyon, Niagara Falls ,
and the Rocky Mountains beautiful.] Second,
even though 5[art critics frequently disagree with one another], 6[they
do defend their views with principled reasoning.] Third, 7[art
critics tend to agree among themselves about which historical works of art are
truly great.] And 8[this agreement is no mere coincidence] since 9[the
critics are not, in general, reluctant to disagree with one another.]
4 9
↓ ↓
3 6 7 + 8 |
2
8. 1[In
the new order, when voters are concerned about what benefits the elected
officer will provide them, promises, hypocrisy, deceit, log-rolling and clout
are fast becoming the characteristics of electability.] As Harold Blake Walker
noted, 2[of 21 Congressmen linked in one way or another with
political wrongdoing or personal scandal prior to the 1976 election, 19 were
re-elected.]
2
↓
1
*9. Despite
the fact that 1[contraception is regarded as a blessing by most
Americans,] 2[using contraceptives is immoral.] For 3[whatever
is unnatural is immoral] since 4[God created and controls nature.]
And 5[contraception is unnatural] because 6[it interferes
with nature.]
4 6
↓ ↓
3 + 5
↓
2
10. While
1[some people seem to be under the impression that humans are making
moral progress,] I submit that 2[the 20th century is a movement
backwards into violence and cruelty.] For in spite of the fact that 3[science
and technology have developed rapidly,] 4[the greatest mass murders
in history have all occurred in this century.] 5[Millions died on
the battlefields of World Wars I and II.] 6[Six million Jews died in
Nazi prison camps.] And 7[from 1917 until the end of Stalin’s reign,
20 million people died in Soviet work camps.] 8[More recently, we
have Pol Pot’s slaughter of the Cambodians as well as the atrocities in the
former Yugoslavia
5 6 7 8
4
↓
2
*11. 1[There
is no life after death.] For 2[what’s real is what you can see,
hear, or touch.] And 3[you cannot see, hear, or touch life after
death.] Furthermore, 4[life after death is possible only if humans
have souls.] But 5[the notion of a soul belongs to a prescientific
and outmoded view of the world.] And hence, 6[the belief in souls belongs
to the realm of superstition.]
5
↓
2 + 3 4 + 6
 |
|
1
Note: (5) and (6) could alternatively
be regarded as repetitious.
12. 1[Politicians
are forever attributing crime rates to policies]—2[if the crime
rates are decreasing, to their own “wise” policies;] 3[if the crime
rates are increasing, to the “failed” policies of their opponents.] But the
fact is that 4[crime rates are best explained in terms of
demographics.] For 5[crime is primarily a young man’s game.] 6[Whenever
there is a relatively large number of young men between the ages of 15 and 30,
the crime rates are high.] And 7[whenever this part of the
population is relatively small, the crime rates are relatively low.]
6 + 7
↓
5
↓
4
13. 1[A
liberal arts education is vital to any great nation.] Why? For one thing, 2[a
liberal arts education provides the best possible skills in communication.] And
3[without good communication at all levels, a nation cannot move
forward.] For another, 4[work is not the whole of life.] And it is
well known that 5[a liberal arts education increases one’s capacity
to enjoy life by substantially broadening the range of one’s interests.]
2 + 3 4 + 5
|
|
1
14. 1[The
human sciences have made a major contribution to cynicism about human
greatness, especially as they treat the subjects of motivation and freedom.] 2[We
are told that human choice is not what it appears to be.] 3[If we
accept the sophistications of some views of psychology, we know that what
appears to be heroic—for example, a man or woman’s act of courage in saving
another’s life—is, in fact, a desperate attempt to win the approval of a
long-dead parent who had withheld love in the childhood years.] What, then, has
become of the hero? 4[He or she is transformed in our minds into a
neurotic, and with a slight turn of the mind, admiration is changed to pity and
condescension.]
3 OR 3
↓ ↓
2 + 4 2
↓ ↓
1 4
↓
1
*15. 1[Violence
as a way of achieving racial justice is both impractical and immoral.] 2[It
is impractical] because 3[it is a descending spiral ending in
destruction for all.] 4[The old law of an eye for an eye leaves
everybody blind.] 5[It is immoral] because 6[it seeks to
humiliate the opponent rather than win his understanding;] 7[it
seeks to annihilate rather than to convert.] 8[Violence is immoral]
because 9[it thrives on hatred rather than love.] 10[It
destroys community and makes brotherhood impossible.]
4
↓
3 6 7 9 10
↓
2 + 5
↓
1
Note: Since the conclusion is a
conjunction, (2) and (5) must be understood to work together to support it.
Part B: More Argument Diagrams
*1. 1[John
and Robert Kennedy and Martin Luther King were, like them or not, this
country’s last true national leaders.] 2[None of John Kennedy’s
successors in the White House has enjoyed the consensus he built,] and 3[every
one of them ran into trouble, of his own making, while in office.] In the same
way, 4[none of this country’s national spokespeople since Robert
Kennedy and Dr. King has had the attention and respect they enjoyed.]
2 3 4
↓
1
2. 1[If
. . . our government is to function it must have dissent.] 2[Only
totalitarian governments insist upon conformity] and 3[they—as we
know—do so at their peril.] 4[Without criticism abuses will go
unrebuked;] 5[without dissent our dynamic system will become
static.]
2 + 3 4 5
↓
1
3. 1[It
is because of the ideal of freedom that we have organized our particular form
of democracy,] since 2[the political structure of any society is . .
. formed to support the demands which the people make for the attainment of
certain values.] 3[Because of . . . the variety and richness of the
social and natural resources with which the country has abounded, in order to
realize the full potential which has always existed here, we have needed the
idea of freedom as a social instrument to be used for our full development.]
2 + 3
↓
1
*4. For
a variety of reasons, 1[private colleges are in trouble.] First, 2[private
colleges have repeatedly increased tuition well beyond the rate of inflation.]
And 3[any business that increases prices in such a fashion is likely
to run into trouble.] Second, 4[many people are beginning to question
the value of higher education] since 5[a college degree no longer
guarantees an attractive salary.] Third, rightly or wrongly, 6[the
American public believes that colleges have not practiced good financial
management,] and hence 7[the public thinks that tuition dollars
often subsidize inefficiency.]
5 6
↓ ↓
2 + 3 4 7 ↓
1
Note:
(5) could well be understood simply to explain (4), rather than to argue
for it.
5. Not
an argument; merely a report of a series of events and their consequences.
6. 1[The
legalization of drugs is neither unwise nor immoral.] 2[It is not
unwise] because, 3[by legalizing drugs, we would eliminate the
illegal drug trade.] Hence, 4[by legalizing drugs, we would rid our
nation of all the violence that goes along with the illegal drug trade.]
Furthermore, 5[the legalization of drugs is not immoral] since 6[it
can be combined with a massive program of moral education.]
3
↓
4 6
↓ ↓
2 + 5
↓
1
Note:
Since the conclusion is a conjunction, (2) and (5) must be understood to
work together to support it.
7. 1[During
the 1930s, there were 1667 executions in the United States.] 2[During
the 1940s, there were 1284.] 3[During the 1950s, there were 717.]
And 4[during the rehabilitation-mad 1960s, the numbers plummeted to
191.] 5[Then came the Furman
v. Georgia decision in 1972, which resulted in a grand total of 3
executions during the 1970s.] While 6[the numbers began to creep
back up in the 1980s, with a total of 117 executions in that decade,] 7[we
are forced to conclude that America America
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5
↓
7
↓
8
Note:
Statement (6) may be reasonably regarded as either a discount or a premise in
this case.
8. 1[It
is difficult, and you may be sure that we know it, for us to oppose your power
and fortune, unless the terms be equal.] Nevertheless 2[we trust
that the gods will give us fortune as good as yours,] because 3[we
are standing for what is right against what is wrong;] and 4[as for
what we lack in power, we trust that it will be made up for by our alliance
with the Spartans. . . .] 5[Our confidence, therefore, is not so
entirely irrational as you think.]
3
↓
2 4
5
Note:
Statement (1) is a discount.
9. Two distinct lines of reasoning support
the thesis that 1[the physical universe is temporally finite.]
First, 2[the galaxies are speeding away from each other and from a
central point.] Moreover, 3[there isn’t enough matter in the
universe to reverse this process.] And 4[if we trace this process
back, it appears that the universe began with a “bang” some 15 to 20 billion
years ago.] Second, 5[if the universe is temporally infinite, it
must have gone through an infinite number of cycles (each Big Bang followed by
a Big Crunch).] But according to physicists, 6[each Big Bang/Big
Crunch cycle would cause a decrease in the overall amount of available energy.]
Thus, 7[if the universe were temporally infinite, there would now be
no energy available at all.] But obviously, 8[lots of energy is
still available.]
5 + 6
↓
2 + 3 + 4 7 + 8
 |
|||
 |
|||
1
*10. While
1[colleges and universities have come under heavy criticism in the
last decade,] 2[they will undoubtedly remain a vital force in
American social life for generations to come.] For one thing, although 3[both
the public and the media seem to have a thirst for stories about people who’ve
gotten rich or famous with only a high school degree,] the fact remains that 4[a
college or university degree is the surest way to increase one’s social and
occupational status.] For another, 5[college grads as a group indicate
higher levels of satisfaction with their lives than do those with lesser
educational attainments.] Finally, 6[you show me a nation with a
weak system of higher education and I’ll show you a nation with little power.]
And 7[Americans will never willingly accept a position of relative
powerlessness among the nations of the world.]
4 5 6 + 7
↓
2
11. Not
an argument; rather, a statement or report of observations.
*12. Not
an argument; rather, a series of unsupported assertions, or exhortations.
13. Although
1[the great majority of homicides in the United States involve
assailants of the same race or ethnic group,] 2[current evidence
suggests that socioeconomic status plays a much greater role in explaining
racial and ethnic differences in the rate of homicide than any intrinsic
tendency toward violence.] For example, 3[Centerwall has shown that
when household crowding is taken into account, the rate of domestic homicide
among blacks in Atlanta, Georgia, is no higher than that of whites living in
similar conditions.] Likewise, 4[a recent study of childhood
homicide in Ohio found that once cases were stratified by socioeconomic status,
there was little difference in race-specific rates of homicide involving
children 5 to 14 years of age.]
3 4
2
*14. 1[The
only proof capable of being given that an object is visible, is that people
actually see it.] 2[The only proof that a sound is audible, is that
people hear it;] and 3[so of the other sources of our experience.]
In like manner, I apprehend, 4[the sole evidence it is possible to
produce that anything is desirable, is that people do actually desire it.]
Thus, 5[no reason can be given why the general happiness is
desirable, except that each person . . . desires his own happiness.]
1 2 3
↓
4
↓
5
15. 1[There
is an undoubted psychological easing of standards of truthfulness toward those
believed to be liars.] It is simply a fact, for instance, that 2[one
behaves differently toward a trusted associate and toward a devious, aggressive
salesman.] But 3[this easing of standards merely explains the
difference in behavior;] 4[it does not by itself justify lies to those
one takes to be less than honest.] 5[Some of the harm the liar may
have done by lying may be repaid by the harm a lie can do to him in return.] 6[But
the risks to others, to general trust, and to those who lie to liars in
retaliation merely accumulate and spread thereby.] 7[Only if there
are separate, and more compelling, excuses, can lying to liars be justified.]
3 + 4 6
|
|||
 |
|||
7
Note:
Statements (1), (2), and (5) are discounts. It is also reasonable to regard (3)
as supporting (4).
No comments:
Post a Comment